What is the primary technical challenge in reliably attributing a cyberattack with arms control implications to a specific state actor?

The primary technical challenge in reliably attributing a cyberattack with arms control implications to a specific state actor is the ability of attackers to conceal their identities and origins by using various techniques such as proxy servers, virtual private networks (VPNs), and malware that spoofs or masks the attacker's location and identity. Cyberattacks can be launched from anywhere in the world, and attackers can route their traffic through multiple countries to obscure their true location. They can also use 'false flag' operations, employing tools and techniques that mimic those used by other actors to mislead investigators. Even with sophisticated forensic analysis of malware, network traffic, and system logs, it can be extremely difficult to definitively link a cyberattack to a specific state. Nation-state actors often have the resources and expertise to develop custom malware and sophisticated techniques that are difficult to trace. Furthermore, the lack of international norms and legal frameworks for cyberspace makes it challenging to establish clear standards for attribution and accountability. This difficulty in attribution poses a significant challenge for arms control because it makes it difficult to deter cyberattacks and to hold states accountable for violating arms control agreements.