What is the most likely cause of scaling on a concrete surface in a cold climate?

The most likely cause of scaling on a concrete surface in a cold climate is freeze-thaw damage, often exacerbated by the use of deicing salts. Scaling is the flaking or peeling away of the concrete surface, resulting in a loss of material and exposure of the underlying concrete. In cold climates, concrete is subjected to repeated cycles of freezing and thawing. When water within the concrete pores freezes, it expands by....