What is the primary mechanism by which prompt nuclear radiation causes damage?

The primary mechanism by which prompt nuclear radiation causes damage is through ionization and excitation of atoms and molecules within living tissues and materials. Prompt nuclear radiation consists primarily of neutrons and gamma rays that are emitted within the first minute after a nuclear detonation. These highly energetic particles interact with matter by colliding with atoms. When neutrons collide with atoms, they can displace the atoms from their molecules, or be captured by the nucleus of the atom, transmuting it to another element. Gamma rays, being high-energy photons, interact with atoms primarily through the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production. All these interactions result in the ejection of electrons from atoms, creating ions (atoms with a net electrical charge) and free radicals (highly reactive molecules with unpaired electrons). In biological systems, this ionization and excitation damage DNA, proteins, and other critical cellular components. DNA damage can lead to cell death, mutations, and cancer. Damage to proteins can disrupt their function, leading to organ failure and other health problems. The severity of the damage depends on the dose of radiation received, the type of radiation, and the sensitivity of the tissues exposed. Neutrons are particularly damaging due to their ability to penetrate deeply into tissues and cause significant atomic displacements. Gamma rays are also highly penetrating and can cause widespread ionization. In electronic systems, ionization can cause temporary or permanent malfunctions by disrupting the flow of electrons in semiconductors and creating spurious currents.