Explain the concept of carbon capture and storage (CCS) and its potential application in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from refineries.

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is a technology designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), from industrial sources by capturing CO2 emissions, transporting it, and storing it permanently underground, preventing it from entering the atmosphere. Refineries are significant sources of CO2 emissions due to the combustion of fuels for heat and power and from certain chemical processes. Therefore, CCS has the potential to significantly reduce a refinery's carbon footprint. The CCS process typically involves three main stages: capture, transport, and storage. CO2 capture involves separating CO2 from other gases in the flue gas stream. Several capture technologies are available, including pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel combustion. Post-combustion capture, which involves removing CO2 from the flue gas after combustion, is the most commonly used ....